Introduction:
MDMA, colloquially known as ecstasy or Molly, is a synthetic drug celebrated for its unique ability to induce a state of heightened pleasure, euphoria, and deepened social connections. Yet, it’s a double-edged sword. The immediate elation is often counterbalanced by a dispiriting comedown - an aftermath marked by symptoms such as depression, fatigue, and confusion. For those ensnared in this bittersweet dance, an increasingly popular narrative of harm reduction strategies has come to light. These strategies revolve around incorporating supplementation regimens to diminish the undesirable after-effects of MDMA, thereby promoting a potentially safer experience.
This comprehensive exploration is your guide to understanding an array of supplements that have entered the conversation around MDMA use - 5-HTP, NAC, Magnesium, Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA), Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR), Electrolytes or Isotonic Fluids, Ascorbate (Vitamin C), Vitamin E, Nicotinamide, Ubiquinone (Co-Q10), and Ginger. Each of these supplements is reputed to offer relief from different aspects of the MDMA experience, whether it be reducing the impact of the comedown, protecting the brain from potential neurotoxic effects, or aiding in the recovery process.
To provide a holistic view, we blend scientific understanding with firsthand accounts of MDMA users. For instance, we'll hear from Alex who swears by ALA for improved recoveries, and Lisa who has noticed a positive difference after incorporating ALCAR into her routine. We'll explore anecdotes from those who have turned to isotonic fluids to avoid alarming experiences with dehydration, or those like David, who have found an unlikely ally in ginger for combatting MDMA-induced nausea.
However, as we navigate the wealth of information and personal stories, an important caveat remains paramount - the mitigation of some risks does not translate to the eradication of all dangers. MDMA use, by its nature, carries inherent risks. Thus, these supplement-based strategies are intended to aid harm reduction, not to assure absolute safety. They are not a green light for uninhibited MDMA use, but tools for those seeking to minimize harm while acknowledging that complete safety can only be achieved through abstention.
Join us on this enlightening journey as we delve deeper into the science and personal experiences associated with these supplements. Let's explore together the potential benefits, the cautionary tales, and the wisdom borne out of personal experiences, all while keeping a keen eye on safety and well-being.
Timing and Dosage: A Comprehensive Guide to Supplement Use with MDMA
As we delve into the world of supplements that could potentially mitigate the after-effects of MDMA use, it's crucial to understand not just what to take, but also when and how much. The timing and dosage of these supplements play a significant role in their efficacy and safety. With this in mind, the following chart provides an overview of the suggested timing and dosages for each supplement discussed in this article. Please remember, these are general guidelines based on current literature and individual needs can vary greatly. As always, consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.
Please remember that these suggested dosages are general recommendations based on available literature and should be adjusted according to individual needs. Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.Please remember that these suggested dosages are general recommendations based on available literature and should be adjusted according to individual needs. Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.
Rebalancing Serotonin with 5-HTP - The Science and Personal Experiences
MDMA's intoxicating allure primarily owes to its profound impact on serotonin - a neurotransmitter instrumental in modulating mood, anxiety, and our overall sense of well-being. MDMA triggers a dramatic release of serotonin in the brain, leading to the euphoric highs characteristic of the drug. However, this exuberant surge is followed by a stark depletion of serotonin reserves, often manifesting as a disheartening comedown, marked by low moods and emotional fatigue, once the drug's effects dissipate.
In a bid to counter this depletion and expedite the replenishment of serotonin, many individuals within the MDMA user community have turned to supplementation with 5-HTP (5-Hydroxytryptophan). This naturally occurring amino acid, a direct precursor to serotonin, is thought to aid in restocking the body's serotonin levels when taken post-MDMA experience.
One such individual is Sarah, an occasional MDMA user and enthusiastic participant in the festival scene. Over the years, Sarah has adopted 5-HTP as a vital part of her post-MDMA routine. "I began taking 5-HTP the day after using MDMA based on the recommendations of friends who'd had positive experiences," she recounts. "In the days following MDMA use, I used to feel unusually low, lethargic, almost incapable of savoring the post-festival glow."
Sarah experienced a noticeable change in her recovery period once she integrated 5-HTP into her post-use routine. "The intensity of my post-MDMA blues has significantly diminished. I've seen a decrease in the fatigue I used to experience and find myself returning to my usual self far quicker," she comments.
Sarah typically takes a dose of 100mg of 5-HTP the night after her MDMA experience and continues this for three to five days, also complementing her regime with a 400 IU dose of Vitamin E to enhance the absorption of 5-HTP. However, she never takes 5-HTP 12 hours before or after MDMA use, aware of the potential risk of serotonin syndrome.
Despite promising personal experiences like Sarah's, it's imperative to maintain a cautious approach to this strategy. 5-HTP supplementation carries a risk of serotonin syndrome, a potentially life-threatening condition caused by excessive serotonin in the brain, resulting in a spectrum of symptoms from the mild (shivering, heavy sweating) to the severe (seizures, high fever). In the context of MDMA and 5-HTP, this risk can increase if the two substances are taken too closely together, potentially leading to an overwhelming accumulation of serotonin.
Thus, while 5-HTP might be a useful ally in aiding post-MDMA recovery, it should never be taken immediately before, during, or within 12 hours of MDMA use. As a rule of thumb, always consult a healthcare provider before initiating a new supplement regimen, ensuring a safer, more informed approach to harm reduction.
Protecting the Brain with NAC - Insights from Science and User Experiences
N-Acetyl Cysteine, widely known as NAC, has emerged as a supplement of interest within the MDMA user community, largely due to its robust antioxidant properties. As a derivative of the naturally occurring amino acid L-cysteine, NAC plays a key role in replenishing glutathione, a vital antioxidant in our body that serves as a protective shield against oxidative stress and neurotoxicity.
Oxidative stress, a condition characterized by an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants, poses a considerable concern in the context of MDMA use, as it can lead to neuronal damage. By bolstering glutathione levels, NAC is theorized to offer protection against this potential harm. Consequently, it has found favor as a pre- and post-experience supplement among a subset of MDMA users.
Jake, a seasoned MDMA user, has found value in incorporating NAC into his MDMA-related routine. Reflecting on his experiences, Jake notes, "The days after MDMA use were typically marred by a palpable mental fog. It felt as though I was wading through thick mental sludge."
Inspired to improve his post-MDMA experience, Jake began supplementing with NAC. Typically, he takes a dose of 600mg of NAC twice a day, starting two days before his MDMA use, on the day of the experience, and continuing for a couple of days post-experience. "The shift I observed with the introduction of NAC was remarkable. The post-use fog seemed to lift significantly. My mind felt sharper, and that disconcerting 'out of sorts' feeling receded considerably," he reflects.
Despite promising anecdotes like Jake's, it is essential to underscore that the current scientific understanding of NAC's potential advantages in the context of MDMA use remains preliminary. While NAC's role in replenishing glutathione and battling oxidative stress is well-established, definitive evidence attesting to its efficacy in alleviating the after-effects of MDMA is still under investigation.
Further research is required to fully illuminate NAC's potential as a protective agent in MDMA use. In the interim, those considering its use should tread with caution, preferably under the advisement of a healthcare provider. This is particularly crucial given that NAC, like all supplements, can have side effects and interactions with other substances.
Alleviating Physical Discomfort with Magnesium - Scientific Background and User Experiences
Magnesium, an essential mineral integral to numerous physiological functions, has become a sought-after supplement among MDMA users looking to mitigate a common yet unpleasant side effect - bruxism, or teeth grinding. Apart from its pivotal role in bone health and energy production, magnesium is crucial for neuromuscular transmission and nerve conduction. These functionalities form the basis of its potential efficacy in reducing the muscular tension often associated with MDMA use.
Ellie's story elucidates the role of magnesium in managing MDMA-induced physical discomfort. As a passionate attendee of electronic music events, Ellie often resorts to MDMA to augment her immersion in the exhilarating music and shared community experience. However, the ensuing jaw tension and teeth grinding - a well-known consequence of MDMA use - significantly hampered her post-event recovery.
In pursuit of a solution to these discomforting physical symptoms, Ellie started supplementing with magnesium. "The aftermath of these events was invariably characterized by a sore jaw, courtesy of a night of involuntary teeth grinding. It was an inconvenience I had resigned myself to, until I stumbled upon magnesium," she recalls. Ellie started taking 200mg of magnesium glycinate three times a day, starting the day before her MDMA experience, continuing on the day of the event, and for a couple of days thereafter.
She noticed a significant transformation in her post-event recovery. "The almost customary jaw tension post-event started to fade. The intensity of the teeth grinding decreased noticeably. It has made a profound difference to my recovery phase," she adds.
While Ellie's experience seems to confirm the potential benefits of magnesium supplementation, it is important to note that the scientific research directly addressing the use of magnesium to alleviate MDMA-induced bruxism remains limited. Therefore, those considering this strategy should understand that individual responses can vary greatly, and it is prudent to consult with a healthcare provider to ascertain the most suitable form and dosage of magnesium. Additionally, magnesium supplements can cause digestive issues in some individuals, another reason to proceed with caution.
Enhancing Neuroprotection with Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA) - The Science, Personal Experiences, and Recommendations
Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA), an antioxidant endogenously produced in the body, has piqued the interest of some MDMA users owing to its potential neuroprotective effects against MDMA-induced neurotoxicity. A potent antioxidant, ALA plays a critical role in neutralizing harmful free radicals and reducing oxidative stress - processes intrinsically linked to neuroprotection.
A key study published in Neuroreport in 1999 demonstrated ALA's neuroprotective abilities in the context of MDMA use. The researchers found that ALA prevented neurotoxic damage in rats exposed to MDMA, indicating the antioxidant's potential in mitigating the neurotoxic effects of the substance1. This research provides a scientific foundation for the anecdotal reports shared within the MDMA community about the perceived benefits of ALA.
Consider the experience of Alex, a regular MDMA user. He had been grappling with harsh comedowns until a friend recommended integrating ALA into his routine. "The comedowns were pretty severe, and a friend who had been using MDMA for longer than I had, suggested trying ALA. I was a bit skeptical initially, but decided to give it a go," Alex recalls.
Alex started taking 200mg of ALA before his MDMA experiences and another 200mg during the experience. He continued the regimen for two days following the event. Over time, he noticed a positive shift in his post-MDMA recovery. "It's tough to be certain because many factors can influence how you feel after using MDMA, but it seemed like my recoveries got smoother once I introduced ALA into my routine. The depressive lows that typically punctuated the days after use seemed less severe," he shares.
While these anecdotal reports and initial studies provide promising insights into the potential of ALA in protecting against MDMA-induced neurotoxicity, it is essential to remember that this is still an emerging area of research. Further scientific investigations are required to confirm these initial findings, and MDMA users considering ALA supplementation should consult a healthcare provider to discuss potential risks and to establish the appropriate dosage.
As always, it is crucial to remember that no supplementation strategy can completely eliminate the risks associated with MDMA use. These practices should be viewed as potential harm reduction strategies rather than foolproof safety measures.
Footnotes
Aguirre N, et al. Alpha-lipoic acid prevents 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA)-induced neurotoxicity. Neuroreport. 1999
Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) and MDMA: A Potential Protective Duo - The Science, Personal Experiences, and Recommendations
Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR), a derivative of the essential amino acid L-Carnitine, has gained attention within the MDMA community for its potential protective effects against the neurotoxicity associated with MDMA use. Known for its antioxidant capabilities and its role in mitochondrial health, ALCAR may hold promise as a protective agent in the context of MDMA.
In 2009, a study published in Neuroscience investigated the neuroprotective capabilities of ALCAR against MDMA-induced neurotoxicity in adolescent rats. The researchers found that ALCAR effectively countered the harmful effects of MDMA on the brain's mitochondria1. This evidence provides a scientific basis for the anecdotal experiences shared by MDMA users, such as Lisa.
Lisa, an occasional MDMA user, was looking for ways to mitigate the post-MDMA fatigue and cognitive sluggishness that often colored her post-experience days. "I loved the experience that MDMA provided, but the following days were a struggle. I felt like I was moving through a haze, with low energy levels and a foggy mind," she recounts.
Following the advice of a more experienced friend, Lisa began incorporating ALCAR into her supplementation routine. She started with a dose of 500mg, taken both before and after her MDMA experiences. Over time, Lisa observed a change in her post-MDMA recovery. "After I started using ALCAR, the foggy feeling seemed to lift faster. I didn't feel as depleted or mentally 'out of it' in the days following an MDMA experience," she shares.
Despite encouraging anecdotal accounts like Lisa's, it's crucial to remember that the scientific understanding of ALCAR's role in mitigating MDMA-induced neurotoxicity is still developing. More extensive and diverse research is necessary to establish a comprehensive understanding of ALCAR's potential in this context. As with any supplementation regimen, consultation with a healthcare provider is recommended to ensure appropriate use and dosage.
Again, it is worth emphasizing that while these supplements may aid in harm reduction, they do not guarantee safety. The inherent risks associated with MDMA use remain, and these strategies should be employed as additional protective measures, not as safety assurances.
Footnotes
Alves E, et al. Acetyl-L-Carnitine provides effective in vivo neuroprotection over 3,4-methylenedioximethamphetamine-induced mitochondrial neurotoxicity in the adolescent rat brain. Neuroscience. 2009.
Electrolytes or Isotonic Fluids: A Shield Against Hyponatremia - Unpacking the Science, Personal Stories, and Recommendations
Hyponatremia, a condition characterized by low sodium levels in the blood, is a well-documented risk associated with MDMA use. Electrolytes and isotonic fluids have become crucial tools for many MDMA users to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance, mitigating the risk of hyponatremia and promoting overall health during their MDMA experiences.
MDMA can disrupt the balance of electrolytes in the body, particularly sodium, due to its impact on the body's water regulation and its propensity to induce profuse sweating. If left unchecked, this can potentially lead to hyponatremia, which in severe cases can cause symptoms ranging from nausea and headaches to seizures and even coma.
Josh, a regular participant in the festival scene and an MDMA user, learned about the importance of fluid balance the hard way. "I was at a summer festival, dancing for hours under the scorching sun," Josh recalls. "I was sweating profusely, and I made the mistake of drinking only water and not replenishing my electrolytes. It wasn't long before I started feeling disoriented and extremely lethargic."
This harrowing experience served as a wake-up call for Josh, prompting him to prioritize maintaining electrolyte balance during his MDMA experiences. "Now, I always carry isotonic drinks when I attend a festival. I make sure to alternate between water and these drinks to keep my hydration and electrolytes in check," he shares. Isotonic drinks typically contain a dose of around 20-24 mmol/L of sodium, similar to the body's own concentration, thus supporting the maintenance of sodium levels while hydrating.
Despite the potential benefits of electrolyte or isotonic fluid supplementation, it is crucial to bear in mind that these strategies do not eliminate all risks associated with MDMA use. These are additional harm reduction measures meant to supplement responsible use and do not guarantee safety. Also, moderation is key when it comes to fluid intake, as excessive consumption (even of water) can exacerbate hyponatremia. Consultation with a healthcare professional can provide guidance on the appropriate use and timing of these supplements.
Ascorbate (Vitamin C): More Than Just an Immunity Booster - Understanding the Science, Personal Experiences, and Usage Guidelines
While Vitamin C, or ascorbate, is popularly known for its immune-boosting properties, some research suggests that it may also play a role in neuroprotection against MDMA-induced harm1. This antioxidant vitamin can neutralize free radicals, combat oxidative stress, and thus potentially mitigate some of the neurotoxic effects of MDMA.
In a study published in 2002, researchers investigated the impact of Vitamin C on the metabolism of MDMA in rat liver. They discovered that the presence of Vitamin C altered the metabolism of MDMA, which could theoretically reduce its neurotoxic effects1. However, it's important to note that this was an animal study, and more research is required to fully understand and confirm these effects in humans.
Emma, a regular MDMA user, has made Vitamin C a staple in her MDMA routine based on these potential benefits. "I first started using Vitamin C because I heard it could help lessen the MDMA comedown," Emma shares. "While it's not a magic solution, I've definitely noticed that my post-MDMA fatigue seems less pronounced when I incorporate Vitamin C."
In terms of dosage and timing, Emma usually takes about 1000 mg of Vitamin C a few hours before her MDMA experience, and another 1000 mg dose the following day. "I don't know if this is the 'perfect' regimen, but it's been working for me so far," she explains.
While Vitamin C appears to be a promising supplement in the context of MDMA use, it's critical to remember that individual responses may vary, and the safety and efficacy of this approach are not fully proven. As always, users should consult with a healthcare provider for personalized advice before incorporating new supplements into their routines.
Footnotes
Ros J, et al. Effect of vitamin C on the metabolism of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in rat liver. Life Sciences. 2002
Vitamin E: A Potential Guard Against Neurotoxicity - Scientific Insight, User Experiences, and Usage Guidelines
Vitamin E, a fat-soluble nutrient found in many foods, is an antioxidant renowned for its ability to neutralize harmful free radicals. This characteristic has led to research into its potential neuroprotective capabilities, particularly in the context of MDMA use1.
In a study published in 2007, researchers discovered that MDMA could induce apoptosis, or programmed cell death, via stimulation of the 5-HT(2A) receptor in cortical neurons1. The study suggested that antioxidants, like Vitamin E, might mitigate these detrimental effects, thereby potentially reducing MDMA-induced neurotoxicity. Nevertheless, as this was an in vitro study, further research, particularly human studies, is needed to substantiate these findings.
John, a music festival enthusiast and regular MDMA user, has integrated Vitamin E into his MDMA regimen based on its purported benefits. "I started using Vitamin E after reading a forum discussion about its potential neuroprotective properties," says John. "While it's hard to quantify the benefits, I do feel like my comedowns have been less severe since I've started supplementing with Vitamin E."
In terms of dosage and timing, John typically takes around 400 IU (International Units) of Vitamin E several hours before using MDMA, then another 400 IU dose the day following his MDMA experience. "I don't have concrete evidence that this is the best approach, but it seems to be working for me," he explains.
However, despite promising individual experiences like John's, it's important to remember that the scientific understanding of Vitamin E's role in MDMA use remains limited. Individuals considering its use should approach with caution and, ideally, under the guidance of a healthcare provider.
Footnotes
Capela JP, et al. Ecstasy induces apoptosis via 5-HT(2A)-receptor stimulation in cortical neurons. Neurotoxicology. 2007
Nicotinamide: A Hidden Protector? - Scientific Findings, User Experiences, and Usage Guidelines
Nicotinamide, also known as niacinamide, is a form of vitamin B3 that has been the subject of research due to its potential neuroprotective properties. This interest has extended to exploring its effects in the context of MDMA use1.
In a 2007 study, researchers observed the neurotoxic effects of hallucinogenic amphetamines on primary cultures of hippocampal neurons. It was noted that antioxidants, such as nicotinamide, could provide potential protection against this neurotoxicity1. However, it's important to remember that this is an in vitro study, and its findings may not directly translate to human experiences.
Despite this caution, the scientific evidence has inspired some MDMA users like Michael to incorporate nicotinamide into their supplementation routine. Michael, a regular MDMA user, shares, "After I started supplementing with Nicotinamide, I noticed that I returned to my usual self more quickly following an MDMA experience."
Based on advice from health forums and personal experience, Michael typically takes 500mg of Nicotinamide a few hours before using MDMA and continues with a similar dose for a couple of days post-experience. "The supplement seems to help reduce the mental fog that usually follows an MDMA experience," Michael observes.
Although encouraging stories like Michael's exist, the scientific understanding of Nicotinamide's potential protective role in MDMA use is still developing. Therefore, individuals considering its use should approach with caution, ideally under the guidance of a healthcare provider, to ensure appropriate use and dosage.
Footnotes
Capela JP, et al. The neurotoxicity of hallucinogenic amphetamines in primary cultures of hippocampal neurons. Brain Research. 2007.
Ubiquinone (Co-Q10): Energy Production, Potential Neuroprotection, and User Guidelines
Ubiquinone, more commonly known as Coenzyme Q10 or Co-Q10, is an antioxidant that has garnered attention due to its critical role in energy production and potential neuroprotective effects. It is a naturally occurring compound that is essential for mitochondrial function and the production of ATP, the body's main energy source. These characteristics make it an appealing supplement in the context of MDMA use1.
In a 2005 study, supplementation with Co-Q10, along with alpha-lipoic acid, showed improved nerve conduction velocity in diabetic rats1. While this study did not specifically investigate MDMA use, it hints at the potential benefits of Co-Q10 supplementation in supporting neurological health. Nevertheless, it's crucial to remember that this is an animal study and its findings may not directly apply to humans.
Users like Tina have interpreted this scientific evidence and incorporated Co-Q10 into their MDMA supplementation routine. Tina, a frequent party-goer, shares, "I started supplementing with Co-Q10 as I read about its role in energy production and potential protective properties. Since then, I've noticed a quicker bounce back in my energy levels following an MDMA experience."
Guided by online forums and anecdotal advice, Tina generally takes 200mg of Co-Q10 about 4 hours before her MDMA experience and continues with the same dosage for the next couple of days. "It seems to make a difference in how I feel during the days following the MDMA experience. I feel less fatigued and more like myself," she reports.
While personal experiences like Tina's are encouraging, comprehensive scientific research into the potential benefits of Co-Q10 in the context of MDMA use remains limited. Consequently, individuals considering this supplementation strategy should approach it with caution and, preferably, under the guidance of a healthcare provider to ensure appropriate dosage and use.
Footnotes
Singh A, et al. Coenzyme Q10 and α-lipoic acid supplementation in diabetic rats: conduction velocity distributions. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2005.
Ginger: A Natural Remedy for Nausea, Potential Neuroprotective Benefits, and Practical Guidelines
Ginger, a root used widely in traditional medicine, has been spotlighted in the MDMA community for its potential dual benefits. Preliminary research suggests that ginger might offer neuroprotective effects1 and help manage the nausea frequently associated with MDMA use2.
From a scientific perspective, the neuroprotective properties of ginger are believed to stem from its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. These characteristics could potentially counteract some of the oxidative stress and neuroinflammation that MDMA use can trigger. Meanwhile, the anti-emetic (nausea-relieving) effects of ginger have been well-documented in numerous scientific studies and are attributed to its active components, namely gingerols and shogaols.
David, an enthusiastic participant in music festivals, found ginger to be an effective supplement in his MDMA use. "MDMA always brought me great experiences, but the accompanying nausea was a persistent downside," he shares. "I started taking ginger capsules before the MDMA experience after reading about its anti-nausea properties on a discussion forum. The change was noticeable; the capsules significantly alleviated the nausea I was accustomed to."
David typically takes a 1000mg ginger capsule about 2-3 hours before his MDMA experience, a guideline he came across in user forums and anecdotal reports. "It's made the experience smoother and more enjoyable," he notes, "I wouldn't consider using MDMA without ginger now."
David's experience aligns with the anticipated benefits of ginger, but it's crucial to bear in mind that scientific research specific to ginger's impact on MDMA-induced nausea or potential neuroprotective effects remains limited. Therefore, while ginger supplementation appears promising, individual responses can vary, and it is always advisable to consult with a healthcare professional before starting a new supplementation regimen.
Conclusion:
Navigating the journey of MDMA use can be likened to walking a tightrope: it involves striking a delicate balance between experiencing transient euphoria and avoiding the potential pitfalls of discomfort and adverse health impacts. As we've explored in this guide, a range of supplements, from 5-HTP to NAC, magnesium, ALA, ALCAR, electrolytes, Vitamin C and E, Nicotinamide, Co-Q10, and ginger, have emerged as potential safety nets. They are believed to mitigate some of the unpleasant after-effects and neurotoxicity risks associated with MDMA use.
However, it's crucial to underline that these supplements are not foolproof shields against the potential dangers of MDMA use. They are not magic bullets that guarantee complete safety or a license for reckless behavior. MDMA use inherently carries risks, and abstention remains the surest route to safety.
That said, for those who choose to engage, the use of these supplements should be grounded in an informed understanding of their benefits, potential risks, and ideally, under professional guidance. As we have repeatedly emphasized, the physiological response to MDMA and these supplements can vary significantly from person to person. Therefore, the importance of personalized advice and a safety-first mindset cannot be overstated.
As this exploration concludes, we are reminded of the paramount importance of health and well-being, even as we seek pleasurable experiences. It is vital to arm ourselves with knowledge, maintain an attitude of caution, and always prioritize safety.
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